Introduction to Bipedal Locomotion

Bipedal locomotion refers to walking on two legs in an upright position, and the only animal to do that all the time is the modern human. Our ancestor primates lived in trees and rarely set foot on the ground; our ancestor hominins moved out of those trees and lived primarily in the savannas. Walking upright all the time is thought to have been an evolutionary step forward if you will, and one of the hallmarks of being human. Scholars have often argued that walking erect is an enormous advantage. Walking erect improves communication, allows visual access to farther distances, and changes throwing behaviors. By walking upright, a hominins hands are freed to do all sorts of things, from holding babies to making stone tools to throwing weapons. American neuroscientist Robert Provine has argued that sustained voiced laughter, a trait which greatly facilitates social interactions, is only possible in bipeds because the respiration system is freed to do that in an upright position. Evidence for Bipedal Locomotion There are four main ways scholars have used to figure out whether a particular ancient hominin is primarily living in the trees or walking upright: ancient skeletal foot construction, other bone configurations above the foot, footprints of those hominins, and dietary evidence from stable isotopes. The best of these, of course, is foot construction: unfortunately, ancient ancestral bones are difficult to find under any circumstances, and foot bones are very rare indeed. Foot structures associated with bipedal locomotion include a plantar rigidity—flat foot—which means the sole stays flat from step to step. Secondly, hominins that walk on the earth generally have shorter toes than hominins who live in trees. Much of this was learned from the discovery of a nearly complete Ardipithecus ramidus, an ancestor of ours who apparently walked upright sometimes, some 4.4 million years ago. Skeletal constructions above the feet are slightly more common, and scholars have looked at the configurations of the spine, the tilt, and structure of the pelvis, and the way the femur fits into the pelvis to make assumptions about a hominins ability to walk upright. Footprints and Diet Footprints are also rare, but when they are found in a sequence, they hold evidence that reflects the gait, length of stride, and weight transfer during walking. Footprint sites include Laetoli in Tanzania (3.5-3.8 million years ago, probably Australopithecus afarensis; Ileret (1.5 million years ago) and GaJi10 in Kenya, both likely Homo erectus; the Devils Footprints in Italy, H. heidelbergensis about 345,000 years ago; and Langebaan Lagoon in South Africa, early modern humans, 117,000 years ago. Finally, a case has been made that diet infers environment: if a particular hominin ate a lot of grasses rather than fruit from trees, it is likely the hominin lived primarily in grassed savannas. That can be determined through stable isotope analysis. Earliest Bipedalism So far, the earliest known bipedal locomotor was Ardipithecus ramidus, who sometimes—but not always—walked on two legs 4.4 million years ago. Fulltime bipedalism is currently thought to have been achieved by Australopithecus, the type fossil of which is the famous Lucy, approximately 3.5 million years ago. Biologists have argued that foot and ankle bones changed when our primate ancestors came down from the trees, and that after that evolutionary step, we lost the facility to regularly climb trees without the aid of tools or support systems. However, a 2012 study by human evolutionary biologist Vivek Venkataraman and colleagues points out that there are some modern humans who do regularly and quite successfully climb tall trees, in pursuit of honey, fruit, and game. Climbing Trees and Bipedal Locomotion Venkataraman and his colleagues investigated behaviors and anatomical leg structures of two modern-day groups in Uganda: the Twa hunter-gatherers and Bakiga agriculturalists, who have coexisted in Uganda for several centuries. The scholars filmed the Twa climbing trees and used movie stills to capture and measure how much their feet flexed while tree-climbing. They found that although the bony structure of the feet is identical in both groups, there is a difference in the flexibility and length of soft tissue fibers in the feet of people who could climb trees with ease compared with those who cannot. The flexibility that allows people to climb trees only involves soft tissue, not the bones themselves. Venkataraman and colleagues caution that the foot and ankle construction of Australopithecus, for example, does not rule out tree-climbing, even though it does allow upright bipedal locomotion.   Sources Been, Ella, et al. Morphology and Function of the Lumbar Spine of the Kebara 2 Neandertal. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 142.4 (2010): 549-57. Print. Crompton, Robin H., et al. Human-Like External Function of the Foot, and Fully Upright Gait, Confirmed in the 3.66 Million Year Old Laetoli Hominin Footprints by Topographic Statistics, Experimental Footprint-Formation and Computer Simulation. Journal of The Royal Society Interface 9.69 (2012): 707-19. Print. DeSilva, Jeremy M., and Zachary J. Throckmorton. Lucys Flat Feet: The Relationship between the Ankle and Rearfoot Arching in Early Hominins. PLoS ONE 5.12 (2011): e14432. Print. Haeusler, Martin, Regula Schiess, and Thomas Boeni. New Vertebral and Rib Material Point to Modern Bauplan of the Nariokotome Homo Erectus Skeleton. Journal of Human Evolution 61.5 (2011): 575-82. Print. Harcourt-Smith, William E. H. Origin of Bipedal Locomotion. Handbook of Paleoanthropology. Eds. Henke, Winfried, and Ian Tattersall. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2015. 1919-59. Print. Huseynov, Alik, et al. Developmental Evidence for Obstetric Adaptation of the Human Female Pelvis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113.19 (2016): 5227-32. Print. Lipfert, Susanne W., et al. A Model-Experiment Comparison of System Dynamics for Human Walking and Running. Journal of Theoretical Biology 292.Supplement C (2012): 11-17. Print. Mitteroecker, Philipp, and Barbara Fischer. Adult Pelvic Shape Change Is an Evolutionary Side Effect. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113.26 (2016): E3596-E96. Print. Provine, Robert R. Laughter as an Approach to Vocal Evolution: The Bipedal Theory. Psychonomic Bulletin Review 24.1 (2017): 238-44. Print. Raichlen, David A., et al. Laetoli Footprints Preserve Earliest Direct Evidence of Human-Like Bipedal Biomechanics. PLoS ONE 5.3 (2010): e9769. Print. Venkataraman, Vivek V., Thomas S. Kraft, and Nathaniel J. Dominy. Tree Climbing and Human Evolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2012). Print. Ward, Carol V., William H. Kimbel, and Donald C. Johanson. Complete Fourth Metatarsal Andarches in the Foot of Australopithecus Afarensis. Science 331 (2011): 750-53. Print. Winder, Isabelle C., et al. Complex Topography and Human Evolution: The Missing Link. Antiquity 87 (2013): 333-49. Print.

Two Different Mindsets of Parenting The Chinese and the...

The article â€Å"Why Chinese Mothers Are Superior† by Amy Chua demonstrates the two different mind sets of parenting: Chinese parenting and Western approach to parenting. In my view, Chinese parenting is very strict about school work and extracurricular activities such as pianos and violins. For example, if we compare the two different sets of parenting; Chua says, for instance that Western parents believe that they are strict by forcing their kids practice their instruments for 30 minutes a day at most to an hour. This is nothing compared to the Chinese parents that would say the first hour of practice is easy it’s the second or third hour that gets tough (Chua 2011). This shows how forcefully strict the Chinese parents are compared to†¦show more content†¦Furthermore, the story â€Å"Two Kinds† by Amy Tan basically speaks about a Chinese mother that makes her daughter do all different types of exercise of studies and instrumental lessons. Her motherà ¢â‚¬â„¢s way of parenting is clearly Chinese parenting style. Nothing was good enough for her; she always wanted better for her daughter. She wanted her daughter to be the best of everything and everyone. One day she was watching a TV show where a Chinese girl was playing the piano and she criticized the girl. A few days after she got her daughter piano lessons, not even asking her if she was even interested to learn how to play. All she wanted was for her child to know how to play and for surely play better then that girl on TV. This makes it seem that the mother had no control over the Chinese girl on TV, so she had to in a way force her own daughter to play the right way. Even though her daughter was against playing and had no will, she just pretended to play. The way her mother made her play the piano was the same way she was about her homework assignments making her multiply numbers, which was to find out whether she has a gift. 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Marlowe Monologue Persuasive Essay Example For Students

Marlowe Monologue Persuasive Essay A monologue from the play by Josephine Preston Peabody NOTE: This monologue is reprinted from Marlowe: A Drama in Five Acts. Josephine Preston Peabody. New York: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1901. MARLOWE: Hands off, I say! Stay then, and every devil may come to hear, And heaven may have it\s laugh! I ever speak As if there were a Something there to listen: The shadow of the little mind, grotesque, Confident, helpless, thrown upon the clouds To serve him for a god. And I have sworn There is no God. Ah, but there should be one! There should be one. And there\s the bitterness Of this unending torture-place for men; For the proud soul who craves a Perfectness That might out-wear the rotting of all things Rooted in earth, that bloom so piercing fair A little while, a little while,O God, The little while! No, something, something perfect, man or beast! What is it all, without?And what\s a man? To go a blind way seeking here and there, Spending and spending for the Beautiful, On shams and shows, and clay that worms devour; Banquet and famine, till all\s gone, all\s gone; And he is fain to fill that tortured craving With husks the swine do eat. Almighty Void! And there is nothing there for me to curse, In this despair. I tell thee, I have come Unto a horror no man dreams upon. Nothing is left and nothing is, to curse. For you may hear the crying of the wind, Crying despair and darkness round the earth, Without a hope of rest. But who has caught That torturer by the gray, ancient locks, Or who can stab the wind? Hast ever thought Of the thirst of hatred with no thing to hate? Here, here behold me with my enemy! The Void!

The Geography Of New Zealand Essay Research free essay sample

The Geography Of New Zealand Essay, Research Paper The Geography of New Zealand By Clayton Brown Kirkpatrick Period 7 February 25, 1996 The well-known state of New Zealand is a little, resourceful state located 1,000 stat mis off Australia # 8217 ; s south east seashore. New Zealand has an impressive economic system that continues to turn, a physical landscape that attracts people from around the Earth, and although little, New Zealand is a well-thought-of state for its advanced civilisation and stable authorities. The geographics of this esteemed state can be described through five chief classs, the physical geographics, the cultural geographics, the citizens # 8217 ; criterion of life, the authorities, and the state # 8217 ; s economic system. New Zealand is located in the southern hemisphere, with an absolute location of 37 grades south longitude to 48 grades south longitude and 167 grades east latitude to 177 grades east latitude. It is composed of two major islands named the North and South Islands, and the entire land country of the state, about divided every bit between the two islands, is 103,470 square stat mis. We will write a custom essay sample on The Geography Of New Zealand Essay Research or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Surprisingly, merely 2 per centum of the land country is cultivable. New Zealand has an copiousness of natural resources, explicating why the state is so affluent compared to other states. These resources include fertile graze land, oil and gas, Fe, coal, lumber, and first-class fishing Waterss. New Zealand # 8217 ; s clime is fundamentally moderate twelvemonth unit of ammunition because of the nearby ocean that regulates the clime. New Zealand enjoys a marine West seashore clime, that on mean green goodss sixty to eighty degree temperatures in January and 40 to sixty degree temperatures in July. Because it is surrounded by the ocean, New Zealand receives huge measures of precipitation on both islands. The mean one-year precipitation on the North Island is 30 to forty inches and on the South Island it is 40 to fifty inches. This clime produces assorted woods, mid-latitude deciduous woods, and temperate grassland flora. The terrain is dominated by hayfields, grazing lands, wood lands, and a little concatenation of mountains called the Southern Alps. The land is blanketed with little lakes and rivers that drain the Highlandss and empty into the ocean. The extraordinary diverseness of the physical geographics found in the United States seems to hold been duplicated in this comparatively little state, where the ski inclines and the beaches may be merely an hr apart. The cultural geographics of New Zealand is non every bit diverse as its physical geographics. Presently 3,547,983 people live in New Zealand, but 83.7 per centum of the population live in urbanised countries. The main metropoliss, each incorporating more than one hundred 1000 people, are Auckland, Christchurch, Dunedin, Manukau, and Wellington. The mean population per square stat mi is merely 34, but it is turning due to a 0.8 per centum natural growing rate. Keeping in head that merely 2 per centum of the land is cultivable, the harvest land per capita is a meager 0.125 estates per individual. Large parts of New Zealand are devoted to sheep Stationss, for there are more sheep in New Zealand than people. The official linguistic communication of New Zealand is English, although a little per centum of the people speak Maori, the native linguistic communication. Slightly matching to the linguistic communication groups, the spiritual make up is 52 per centum Christian, 15 per centum Roman Catholic, and 33 per centum unspecified or none. The state takes pride in a 99.9 per centum literacy rate by holding an first-class instruction system. The full state resides in a individual clip zone that would study 6:00 A.M. if the clip in Amarillo, Texas was noon. From the state # 8217 ; s cultural geographics, it coul vitamin D be predicted that the state would bask a good criterion of life. In 1994 the gross national merchandise of New Zealand was a prodigious 56.4 billion United State # 8217 ; s dollars, bring forthing a per capita income of $ 16,640. For every 3.2 people there is a telecasting, and for every 2.2 people there is a telephone, significance there are over 2,600,000 telecastings and telephones in New Zealand. Fortunately, 99.8 per centum of the people are able to enjoy safe imbibing H2O, including the indigens who live in rural countries. New Zealand has a superb wellness attention industry that serves as a idol to the remainder of the universe. There are soon 11,335 doctors and 31,122 infirmary beds in New Zealand, for an ample ratio of one doctor per 313 people and one infirmary bed per 114 people. The population of New Zealand is provided with plentifulness of nutrient and a healthy diet, the mean individual receives about 3,250 Calories per twenty-four hours. New Zealand has one of the highest life anticipations in the full universe, that being 74 for work forces, 80 for adult females, and 77 for any individual. Unfortunately, AIDS is a turning job in New Zealand that continues to distribute at a phenomenal rate. There have been 3,548 AIDS instances reported, impacting one out of every 1,000 people with the syndrome, non to reference the 1000s more septic with the HIV virus. New Zealand # 8217 ; s authorities has contributed to its impressive criterion of life. New Zealand achieved independency from the United Kingdom on September 26, 1907. The authorities was placed in Wellington, on the North Island, and still remains at that place today as the capital. The authorities is a constitutional monarchy that was designed to resemble the United Kingdom authorities. It includes an executive subdivision, legislative subdivision, judicial subdivision, and a King and Queen employed merely as front mans. The armed forces is divided into three subdivisions, the New Zealand ground forces, the Royal New Zealand Navy, and the Royal New Zealand Air Force. Soon there are 742,871 work forces fit for military service, but merely 10,500 active military personnels in service. New Zealand has a booming economic system that is based on three chief economic activities, farm animal elevation, agriculture, and foreign trade. The economic system is about wholly dependent on the export of goods, which include wool, lamb, mouton, beef, fish, and forestry merchandises. Twenty per centum of the exports go to Australia, 15 per centum to Japan, 12 per centum to the U.S. , 6 per centum to the U.K. , and 47 per centum to other states. New Zealand # 8217 ; s pecuniary unit is the New Zealand dollar, and the exchange rate is 1.46 N.Z. dollars equals 1 U.S. dollar. With a 6.2 per centum economic growing rate, New Zealand could shortly hold one of the top five economic systems in the universe. New Zealand is among the universe # 8217 ; s finest states, because of its keen landscape and ace economic system. With an first-class criterion of life, perfect clime, and olympian terrain, New Zealand for many people is an ideal topographic point to populate. Every twelvemonth 100s of 1000s of people tour New Zealand merely to catch a glance of what many proclaim to be Eden, and after researching this study, I intend to someday be one of those tourers. Plants Cited Baerwald, Thomas, and Celeste Fraser. World Geography: A World Perspective. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1995. # 8220 ; New Zealand. # 8221 ; World Fact Book ( 1995 ) . Site: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.odci.gov/cia/publications/ 95fact/nz.html. Compton # 8217 ; s Learning Company. Compton # 8217 ; s Living Encyclopedia. New York: Soft Key, 1997. Famighetti, Robert. The World Almanac and Book of Facts 1997. United States: World Almanac Books, 1997. Novosad, Charles. The Nystrom Desk Atlas. Chicago: Division of Hereff Jones, Inc, 1994.